To establish AM colonization, plant roots extract striatone (hormones), which stimulate AMF spore aging, metabolism and hydroxybranching [20,21], and the release of lipocytoligosaccharide signaling molecules [22], known as mycorrhizal (myc) factors, which are recognised by host plant receptors . Signals from host receptors are transmitted through a transcriptional activation pathway common to both AM colonization and colonization by nitrogen-fixing rhizobia . Following chemical and mechanical stimulation from the AMF hyphopodia, plant epidermal cells produce a sub-cellular structure called a pre-penetration apparatus (PPA) which predicts the path of entry by fungal hypha. The hypha travels through root epidermal cells, then passes between the underlying cells to enter inner cortical cells. Once inside cortical cells, the hypha branches repeatedly to form arbuscules, the structures of nutrient exchange .<br>
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